Information is a force multiplier. Knowledge of the enemy's capability and intentions may be of far more value to a military force than additional troops or firepower. Situation assessment is the ongoing process of inferring relevant information about the forces of concern in a military situation. Relevant information can include force types, firepower, location, and past, present and future course of action. Situation assessment involves the incorporation of uncertain evidence from diverse sources. These include photographs, radar scans, and other forms (...) of image intelligence, or IMINT; electronics intelligence, or ELINT, derived from characteristics (e.g., wavelength) of emissions generated by enemy equipment; communications intelligence, or COMINT, derived from the characteristics of messages sent by the enemy; and reports from human informants (HUMINT). These sources must be combined to form a model of the situation. The sheer volume of data, the ubiquity of uncertainty, the number and complexity of hypotheses to consider, the high-stakes environment, the compressed time frame, and deception and damage from hostile forces, combine to present a staggeringly complex problem. Even if one could formulate a decision problem in reasonable time, explicit determination of an optimal decision policy exceeds any reasonable computational resources. While it is tempting to drop any attempt at rational analysis and rely purely on simple heuristics, we argue that this can lead to catastrophic outcomes. We present an architecture for a ``complex decision machine'' that performs rational deliberation to make decisions in real time. We argue that resource limits require such an architecture to be grounded in simple heuristic reactive processes. We thus argue that both simple heuristics and complex decision machines are required for effective decision making in real time for complex problems. We describe an implementation of our architecture applied to the problem of military situation assessment. (shrink)

There is a need to rapidly assess the impact of new technology initiatives on the Counter Improvised Explosive Device battle in Iraq and Afghanistan. The immediate challenge is the need for rapid decisions, and a lack of engineering test data to support the assessment. The rapid assessment methodology exploits available information to build a probabilistic model that provides an explicit executable representation of the initiative’s likely impact. The model is used to provide a consistent, explicit, explanation to decision makers on (...) the likely impact of the initiative. Sensitivity analysis on the model provides analytic information to support development of informative test plans. (shrink)

Information is a force multiplier. Knowledge of the enemy's capability and intentions may be of far more value to a military force than additional troops or firepower. Situation assessment is the ongoing process of inferring relevant information about the forces of concern in a military situation. Relevant information can include force types, firepower, location, and past, present and future course of action. Situation assessment involves the incorporation of uncertain evidence from diverse sources. These include photographs, radar scans, and other forms (...) of image intelligence, or IMINT; electronics intelligence, or ELINT, derived from characteristics (e.g., wavelength) of emissions generated by enemy equipment; communications intelligence, or COMINT, derived from the characteristics of messages sent by the enemy; and reports from human informants (HUMINT). These sources must be combined to form a model of the situation. The sheer volume of data, the ubiquity of uncertainty, the number and complexity of hypotheses to consider, the high-stakes environment, the compressed time frame, and deception and damage from hostile forces, combine to present a staggeringly complex problem. Even if one could formulate a decision problem in reasonable time, explicit determination of an optimal decision policy exceeds any reasonable computational resources. While it is tempting to drop any attempt at rational analysis and rely purely on simple heuristics, we argue that this can lead to catastrophic outcomes. We present an architecture for a ``complex decision machine'' that performs rational deliberation to make decisions in real time. We argue that resource limits require such an architecture to be grounded in simple heuristic reactive processes. We thus argue that both simple heuristics and complex decision machines are required for effective decision making in real time for complex problems. We describe an implementation of our architecture applied to the problem of military situation assessment. (shrink)

The authors of “A Conceptual Model for the Translation of Bioethics Research and Scholarship” argue that bioethics must respond to institutional pressures by demonstrating that it is having an impact in the world. Any impact, the authors observe, must be “informed” by the goals of the discipline of bioethics. The concept of bioethics as a discipline is central to their argument. They begin by citing an essay that Daniel Callahan wrote in the first issue of Hastings Center Studies. Callahan argued (...) in this 1973 piece that bioethics had yet to attain the status of a discipline, and he lauded the freedom of being able to define a new discipline. Callahan's essay shares with Mathews and colleague's a peculiarity: neither ever defines what it means to refer to something as a “discipline.” To define a discipline does mean attending to the intended end product of scholarly activity, so I concur with Mathews et al.’s focus on outcomes. But I am concerned that in their argument they confusingly entangle their understanding of an academic discipline's internal goals, its telos, with its potential to have an impact on the external world, its praxis. The confusion that this can bring exposes what I believe is a profound problem within bioethics, the discipline's peculiar and at times intellectually hazardous relationship with its institutional hosts. (shrink)

A commentary on a special report, titled Narrative Ethics: The Role of Stories in Bioethics, that appeared with the January‐February 2014 issue.

When I heard that a laboratory in China had cloned two long‐tailed macaques, I thought of Mary Shelley's novel Frankenstein. When academics write about the novel, many point out that the reason the creature becomes a “monster” is not that he has any inherently evil qualities but that Victor Frankenstein, the creature's “mother,” immediately rejects him. All later problems can be traced to the fact that Frankenstein does not take responsibility for his creation. While I do not disagree with this, (...) we need to think beyond (or before) Frankenstein's rejection to the reason he rejects it. I would like to suggest that this reason reveals something about how bioethics judges new biological technologies. I suggest that what causes Frankenstein to feel revulsion toward his creation is its unsettling mix of the beautiful and the ugly. (shrink)

Can one publish a bioethics case ethically? I suspect that most in bioethics would feel comfortable publishing a case if the subject—the patient—gave explicit permission, the amount of biographical information revealed was under the control of the subject, and the subject fully understood the benefits and risks of publishing the case. Some might add that the subject should have a chance to approve the final representation. I think that the ethics of publishing cases needs to be rethought. And this rethinking (...) needs to be focused not on the way publishing a case might harm a patient (that is, nonmaleficence) but, rather, on how a case presentation does not convey the patient’s own voice in the narrative (that is, respect for autonomy). Bioethics needs a new model of case presentation: the polyphonic case, which demands that the subject be a part of the case’s construction. (shrink)

Innovative theories and policy proposals originating in the economics profession have diffused globally over the past several decades, but these models and policy programs transform as they spread. Existing models of change based on the concept of “paradigm shifts” capture the transformation of the economics profession at a high level of abstraction, but analysis of more concrete policy changes and associated ideas requires developing theory at a lower level of abstraction. I propose a field theoretic model of change based on (...) the concept of cycles of polarization and settlement. According to this model, settlements are characterized by multiple cross-cutting axes of competition and debate in a professional field. Moments of contention emerge when field entrepreneurs successfully build professional movements, resulting in polarization. However, contention is episodic and followed by the emergence of “centripetal forces” which lead a gradual return to the center. I develop this model by examining the case of monetary economics and policy in Latin America, a critical case for studies of the policy influence of economic ideas and experts. (shrink)

Contra those bioethicists who think that their cases are based on “real” events and thus not motivated by any particular ethical theory, Chambers explores how case narratives are constructed and thus the extent to which they are driven by particular theories.

Since its introduction in the 1980s, futility as a concept has held contested meaning and applications throughout medicine. There has been little discussion within the psychiatric literature about the use of futility in the care of individuals experiencing severe and persistent mental illness, despite some tacit acceptance that futility may apply in certain cases of psychiatric illness. In this paper, we explore the literature surrounding futility and argue that its connotation within medicine is to describe situations where patients believe that (...) interventions will almost certainly provide no meaningful benefit. We then provide two arguments in support of the use of futility within the care of individuals experiencing SPMI: that some SPMI can be considered a terminal illness, and that the risk-benefit ratio is a dynamic entity such that futility can help describe what Gillett calls the ‘risk of unacceptable badness’ when it comes to considering how an intervention might impact a patient’s quality of life. We posit that capacity should not pose an obstacle to declaring futility when caring for individuals experiencing SPMI and explain how futility is not antithetical to recovery in mental health. Finally, we describe how using futility within psychiatric practice can allow for a reorientation of care by signalling the need to shift to a palliative approach. (shrink)

With the rapid development of genetic research and applications in health care there is some agreement among funding and regulatory bodies that the public(s) need to be equipped to deal with the choices that the new technologies will offer them, although this does not necessarily include a role for the public in influencing their development and regulation. This paper considers the methods and purpose of public consultations in the area of genetics including large-scale surveys of opinion, consensus conferences and focus (...) groups. Consultation has been undertaken to enable the researchers/policy makers to see what the public do not know and plan more public education to make up the deficiency, to check on areas of concern so that public education can be used to address them or to gain a public mandate for a planned policy. An alternative and more recent approach is to find out what the public(s) do know and understand and to see how experts can learn from them in order to get a fuller view of technology in use. (shrink)

It is pictures rather than propositions, metaphors rather than statements, which determine most of our philosophical convictions. Bioethics has been particularly attentive to the role of metaphors in the discourse on moral issues in medicine. In The Physician’s Covenant, William May discusses how the various metaphors of the physician influence the manner in which we analyze problems in clinical ethics. Meaghan O’Keefe and colleagues have argued that particular metaphors dominate and in turn mediate the representation of genetic modification to the (...) public’. Craig Klugman has analyzed the power of various metaphors used in the discussion of... (shrink)

With the rapid development of genetic research and applications in health care there is some agreement among funding and regulatory bodies that the public need to be equipped to deal with the choices that the new technologies will offer them, although this does not necessarily include a role for the public in influencing their development and regulation. This paper considers the methods and purpose of public consultations in the area of genetics including large-scale surveys of opinion, consensus conferences and focus (...) groups. Consultation has been undertaken to enable the researchers/policy makers to see what the public do not know and plan more public education to make up the deficiency, to check on areas of concern so that public education can be used to address them or to gain a public mandate for a planned policy. An alternative and more recent approach is to find out what the public do know and understand and to see how experts can learn from them in order to get a fuller view of technology in use. (shrink)

Although the Book of Ruth is in many respects a classic example of biblical Hebrew narrative, with its stripped-down style and the opaqueness of its character's inner lives and motivations, there are two examples of formal poetry in the book (1:16–17 and 1:20–21). Biblical poetry works with a very different set of literary conventions than narrative, and by taking note of those conventions, we can see the distinctive contributions made by these poems to the book as a whole.

Love, according to the poets, is something like a math problem. Whether it is two striving to become one or the triangulating effect of three, we find a venerable history of number-crunching in the literature of love, not least in ancient Israel's great poetic presentation of desire, the Song of Songs.

In the concluding section of the Minos (318c ff), Socrates praises the oldest law, that given to Crete by Minos, who in Socrates's characterization obtained this law as a result of his status as confidant of Zeus, Minos's father (319d-e). The law that is unchanging, permanent, is therefore the best law, and arguably the only law that truly reflects the “lawness” of law, other possible senses of law being incomplete, as the dialogue shows. There is, moreover, something divine about the (...) character of the best law—though this divinity would seem to have little to do with its tenuous relationship to…. (shrink)

When moral or religious teachings have public and political effects, analysis usually focuses on the message, but attention to the manner in which the teachings are communicated is equally important in understanding their power to influence the course of events. Oscar Romero's particular style of moral discourse was remarkably effective for three reasons: First, his moral reasoning resonated with Salvadoran identity. It was intelligible within those reigning assumptions about national history and territory that could actually move a public to action. (...) Second, his moral judgments were timely. Romero sought to discern what was possible for the Salvadoran public at a given moment. Third, Romero had integrity as a public figure. He lived in such a way that his life, and especially his death, became an exemplary embodiment of the larger religious narrative that both grounded his ethics and gave meaning to the nation. (shrink)

The celebration of the revived Olympic games in London in the summer of 1948 gave to ‘records’ an unusually prominent place in men's thoughts and in their speech and writing, and we instinctively turn back to the ancient Greek world, which witnessed the foundation of the Olympic festival and its long history of wellnigh twelve centuries, to seek traces of any similar phenomenon.

Of all the numerous inscriptions which throw light “upon the organization and activities of the ancient religious and social guilds, none is more valuable and none more vivid than that which contains the minutes of a meeting of the Athenian Iobacchi followed by acomplete text of the statutes which were then unanimously ratified. This document, originally published by S. Wide in A th. Mitt. XIX. 248 sqq., appears in a number of well-known and widely accessible collections—Dittenberger's S.I.G. 737, 1109; Roberts (...) andGardner's Introduction to Greek Epigraphy, II. No. 91; Ziehen's Leges Graecorum Sacrae, II. 46; Michel's Recueil, 1564; and I.G. II. 1368—and has been discussed in detail by E. Maass , who republishes the text with a translation and commentary, and by E. Drerup. (shrink)

These words occur in Appian's account of the riot which led to the death of Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus in 133 B.C. The tribunician elections had been adjourned from the previous day, and Gracchus, who irregularly sought re-election, had with his supporters taken possession of the temple of Jupiter on the Capitol. The assembly broke up in disorder amid wild rumours that Gracchus had deposed all his colleagues or had declared himself tribune for the following year without election or had actually (...) demanded the diadem. The Senate meanwhile had been in session in the temple of Fides, and upon receipt of the news from the Capitol Publius Cornelius Scipio Nasica Serapio urged the consul, Publius Mucius Scaevola, to crush the tyrant. When he declared that he would not put any citizen to death without trial, Nasica, calling loudly upon those who desired the safety of their country to follow him, mounted the Capitol at the head of a considerable body of Senators and led the attack on Gracchus and his partisans. (shrink)

This chapter contains sections titled: Cheerful Resignation Self‐Sufficiency Murphy was an Optimist: Negative Visualization Agency and Control Fate, Freedom, and Sailing.

The organ shortage is commonly presented as having a clear solution, increase the number of organs donated and the problem will be solved. In the light of the Northern Ireland Assembly’s consultation on moving to an opt-out organ donor register this article focusses on the social factors and complexities which impact strongly on both the supply of, and demand for, transplantable organs. Judging by the experience of other countries presumed consent systems may or may not increase donations but have not (...) met demand. Donation rates have risen considerably in all parts of the UK recently but there is also an increasing demand for organs. Looking at international donation rates and attitudes, future demand for organs and education on donation, the question is whether the organ shortage could ever be met. The increase in longevity, in rates of diabetes and obesity and in alcohol related liver disease all contribute both to increased demand for transplants, and re-transplants, and a reduction in the number of usable organs. It is unlikely that demand could ever be met, since, if supply was unlimited, the focus would move to financial resources and competing demands on the health care budget in a publicly funded health system. These factors point to the need to focus on ways of reducing, or at least stabilizing, demand where lifestyle factors contribute to the underlying disease. (shrink)

Trying to separate out nature and nurture as explanations for behaviour, as in classic genetic studies of twins and families, is now said to be both impossible and unproductive. In practice the nature-nurture model persists as a way of framing discussion on the causes of behaviour in genetic research papers, as well as in the media and lay debate. Social and environmental theories of crime have been dominant in criminology and in public policy while biological theories have been seen as (...) outdated and discredited. Recently, research into genetic variations associated with aggressive and antisocial behaviour has received more attention in the media. This paper explores ideas on the role of nature and nurture in violent and antisocial behaviour through interviews and open-ended questionnaires among lay publics. There was general agreement that everybody’s behaviour is influenced to varying degrees by both genetic and environmental factors but deterministic accounts of causation, except in exceptional circumstances, were rejected. Only an emphasis on nature was seen as dangerous in its consequences, for society and for individuals themselves. Whereas academic researchers approach the debate from their disciplinary perspectives which may or may not engage with practical and policy issues, the key issue for the public was what sort of explanations of behaviour will lead to the best outcomes for all concerned. (shrink)

Based on Foucault's discourse on freedom and empowerment, this article addresses his understanding of power and knowledge. By critically examining the negative impact of the No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 on education, the author discusses the transformative power of Foucault's pedagogy for educational reform in which students, teachers, parents, and scholars are agents of change.

The essays contained in Beyond the Juxtaposition of Nature and Culture represent an attempt by scholars from Canada, Germany, and Mexico to come to grips with the innovative work of the American philosopher and anthropologist Lawrence Krader who has proposed nothing less than a new theory of nature, according to which there are at least three different orders--the material-biotic, the quantum, and the human--which differ from one another according to their different configurations of space-time, and which cannot be reduced the (...) one to the others. Each author takes up Krader's theory in relation to its impact on their own discipline: sociology, anthropology, the study of myth, the theory of labor and value, economics, linguistics, and aesthetics. The question of how nature and culture can be integrated within a theoretical framework which links them in difference and nexus and allows each their non-reductive space leads each of the contributors to move in their thinking beyond the old dualisms of materialism and idealism, fact and value, nature and culture. (shrink)

Ethical issues surrounding research are complex and multifaceted. There are issues concerning: the methods used, the intended purpose, the foreseen and unforeseen effects, the use and dissemination of findings, and, not least, what is and what fails to be researched. - In this article we break down the issues into two main categories: (I) how the research itself is done; and (II) how it is determined by and in turn affects a wider context. In the first section we discuss familiar (...) issues such as the need for methodologically sound investigation, appropriate protections for the human subjects of research, as well as issues arising in collaborative research. The second set of issues is less well investigated and, indeed, particularly difficult to address; these are issues that extend well beyond the control of the researcher(s) or, quite often, any one individual or organization. We discuss the selection of research topics, research funding, publication and, finally, the role of external ethical guidelines and their institutional setting. (shrink)

For the legal system to function effectively people are generally viewed as autonomous actors able to exercise choice and responsible for their actions. It is conceivable that genetic traits associated with violent and antisocial behaviour could call into question an affected individual’s responsibility for acts of criminal violence. Evidence concerning genes associated with violent and antisocial behaviour has been introduced in criminal courts in USA and Italy, either alone or with associated environmental factors. One example of a ‘genetic defence’ is (...) based on low levels of monoamine oxidase A activity, with a prevalence of around thirty percent in Caucasian males. In countries with trial by jury it is particularly relevant to consider the views of publics on criminal liability and the significance they assign to evidence citing genetic influences on behaviour. This article draws on largely qualitative research looking at participants’ explanations of, and assigning of responsibility for, violent and antisocial behaviour where environmental or genetic influences are claimed. Genetic factors were not viewed deterministically by participants but were considered by most to be irrelevant to personal responsibility. Notions of human agency, free will and choice were crucial to explanations of problem behaviours and ensured that offenders could be held responsible despite evidence on environmental and genetic factors. (shrink)

The last 10 years has seen the development and deployment of new biotechnologies not just as potential treatments but also as potential enhancements. The definition and differentiation of treatment from enhancement is an ongoing clinical, ethical and social debate that ranges across a proliferating number of convergent technologies. Many of these innovations will ‘come-on-line’ as present generations of young people will be reaching adulthood and considering parenthood. This paper reports on a project that explored the possibilities for human enhancement with (...) young people in order to gather their attitudes towards enhancement and the types of arguments/reasoning they employ when thinking about the possibilities and the techniques. The project focused on if/how distinctions are made between treatment and enhancement, between the different techniques that might be used for enhancement and perceptions of risks and benefits. The young people’s viewpoints, their methods of reasoning and underlying values are compared with those of bioethicists writing on the topic. (shrink)

The self is a common yet unclear theme in addiction studies. William James's model of self provides a framework to explore the experience of self. His model details the subjective and objective constituents, the sense of self‐continuity through time, and the ephemeral and plural nature of the changing self. This exploration yields insights into the self that can be usefully applied to subjective experiences with psychoactive drugs of addiction. Results of this application add depth to the common understanding of self (...) in addiction, acknowledge the importance of feelings and choice in the sense of self created in addiction experiences, and affirm the values salient to these interior experiences in addiction. These results suggest meaning derived from those values, and provide important background knowledge for the nurse interacting with these clients. (shrink)

Older people enter the final phases of their lives with well‐established habits and rituals, some of which might be or become substance abuse. This inquiry focused on the relationship between habits, rituals, and the compulsive addictive behaviours evident in older persons' substance abuse. Habits and rituals, examined as adaptive and limiting functions in older persons, revealed changes in autonomy, social inclusion, and emotional responses to such changes as older persons experience declining energy reserves and physical debilities. Older persons' ebbing sense (...) of control and passionate responses to change illustrate the perennial struggle between the will and emotions when habits and rituals transform to compulsive addictive behaviours. Two concepts, germane to this struggle both in older persons' addictive behaviours and nurses' response, emerged from this inquiry: temperance, a balance between the will's freely chosen actions and passionate desire, and discipline, the means to achieve such balance. The focused attention demanded in discipline can be realized in spiritual exercises and daily care of the soul. Disciplined actions engage the older persons' imaginative capacities to manage and abandon the self in goals consistent with end‐of‐life issues: meaningful fulfillment of human potential and the need for daily joy and pleasure in living the final years. (shrink)

In this paper, we consider three arguments for the irrelevance of the doctrine of double effect in end-of-life decision making. The third argument is our own and, to that extent, we seek to defend it. The first argument is that end-of-life decisions do not in fact shorten lives and that therefore there is no need for the doctrine in justification of these decisions. We reject this argument; some end-of-life decisions clearly shorten lives. The second is that the doctrine of double (...) effect is not recognized in UK law ; therefore, clinicians cannot use it as the basis for justification of their decisions. Against this we suggest that while the doctrine might have dubious legal grounds, it could be of relevance in some ways, e.g. in marking the boundary between acceptable and unacceptable practice in relation to the clinician's duty to relieve pain and suffering. The third is that the doctrine is irrelevant because it requires there to be a bad effect that needs justification. This is not the case in end-of-life care for patients diagnosed as dying. Here, bringing about a satisfactory dying process for a patient is a good effect, not a bad one. What matters is that patients die without pain and suffering. This marks a crucial departure from the double-effect doctrine; if the patient's death is not a bad effect then the doctrine is clearly irrelevant. A diagnosis of dying allows clinicians to focus on good dying and not to worry about whether their intervention affects the time of death. For a patient diagnosed as dying, time of death is rarely important. In our conclusion we suggest that acceptance of our argument might be problematic for opponents of physician-assisted death. We suggest one way in which these opponents might argue for a distinction between such practice and palliative care; this relies on the double-effect doctrine's distinction between foresight and intention. (shrink)

This narrative symposium examines the relationship of bioethics practice to personal experiences of illness. A call for stories was developed by Tod Chambers, the symposium editor, and editorial staff and was sent to several commonly used bioethics listservs and posted on the Narrative Inquiry in Bioethics website. The call asked authors to relate a personal story of being ill or caring for a person who is ill, and to describe how this affected how they think about bioethical questions and the (...) practice of medicine. Eighteen individuals were invited to submit full stories based on review of their proposals. Twelve stories are published in this symposium, and six supplemental stories are published online only through Project MUSE. Authors explore themes of vulnerability, suffering, communication, voluntariness, cultural barriers, and flaws in local healthcare systems through stories about their own illnesses or about caring for children, partners, parents and grandparents. Commentary articles by Arthur Frank, Bradley Lewis, and Carol Taylor follow the collection of personal narratives. (shrink)

In seinem Werk „Totalität und Unendlichkeit” ist Levinas darauf bedacht, eine radikale Philosophie der Transzendenz zu konzipieren. Seine Kritik der abendländischen philosophischen Tradition gipfelt in dem Vorwurf, dasz sie die Momente der Reflexion, der Immanenz und der Totalität übermäszig betont hat, und zwar auf Kosten der echten Transzendenz. Sie opfert die Andersheit des Anderen auf, um ihn systematisch auf Denselben zurückzuführen. Das wirklich Transzendente kann wesensmäszig nicht innerhalb des Horizontes einer Vorvertrautheit erscheinen, da es „totaliter aliter” und das von mir (...) vollkommen Getrennte ist. Es tritt mir im Antlitz des Anderen entgegen. Das Antlitz empfängt seinen Sinn nicht von etwas anderem, es ist selbst sinnverleihend. Infolge des Antlitzes existiere ich für den Anderen, habe ich die Möglichkeit, mich ihm gegenüber sittlich zu verhalten. Transzendenz wird daher ursprünglich im sittlichen Bewusztsein erfahren. Sittlichkeit offenbart sich als Widerstand gegen die immer anwesende Versuchung, den Anderen zu negieren. Das Gebot „Du sollst nicht töten !” ist die erste, nicht die letzte Sinngebung. Dadurch - und nicht durch blosze Erkenntnis — wird das Seiende als Seiendes bestätigt. Das Tötungsverbot ist jedoch der Kristallisationspunkt für alle anderen ethischen Normen. Die Person, die ich nicht beseitigen darf, musz ich auch achten, ihrer Schamhaftigkeit darf ich keine Gewalt antun, für sie bin ich verantwortlich. Auf der sittlichen Anerkennung des Anderen beruht die intersubjektive Verständigung, die Sprache, der vernünftige Umgang und dessen Institutionalisierung. Daher das Primat der praktischen Vernunft, das Levinas auf eine neue Weise zu begründen sucht. Die soeben skizzierte „Philosophie des Antlitzes” bildet den Inhalt der drei ersten Kapitel des Werkes „Totalität und Unendlichkeit”. Das vierte und letzte Kapitel trägt jedoch den bezeichnenden Titel „Jenseits des Antlitzes”. Hierin entwirft Levinas auf überraschende Weise eine Philosophie der Erotik und der Fruchtbarkeit. Was motiviert ihn zu dieser Wendung ? Ausgangspunkt der gesamten Problematik ist zweifellos die Frage nach dem Urteil Gottes, durch das meine Existenz gerechtfertigt oder verworfen wird. Ohne solch ein Urteil wäre Sittlichkeit lediglich subjektive Illusion oder Wahnsinn. Wie kann es aber gefällt werden ? Levinas weist alle theologischen und philosophischen Lösungsversuche ab. Das Urteil Gottes ist kein übernatürlicher Eingriff in das mundane Geschehen ; es tritt nicht, wie Hegel geglaubt hat, im Laufe der Weltgeschichte zutage ; es offenbart sich nicht in der Innerlichkeit einer der Mystik beflissenen Seele. Levinas zufolge bedarf das göttliche Urteil, um als Wahrheit hervortreten zu können, einer unendlichen Zeit. Diese ist ihrerseits nur denkbar infolge der menschlichen Generativität. Warum vertieft sich Levinas jedoch in eine Phänomenologie der Erotik ? Die Erotik ist das Gebiet des Zweideutigen. In ihr verschmelzen Immanenz und Transzendenz, sinnliches Bedürfnis und metaphysisches Verlangen. Das Weibliche erscheint einerseits als das Verletzliche, andererseits als das schamlos Herausfordernde. Die erotische Liebkosung möchte etwas ausdrücken, es gelingt ihr aber nicht, es zur Sprache zu bringen. Während die Philosophie des Antlitzes die Tagesansicht der menschlichen Existenz zeigt — Sittlichkeit, Verantwortung, Sprache, Vernunft — offenbart die Phänomenologie der Erotik deren Nachtseite. Levinas weist alle Versuche vorschneller Rationalisierung des erotischen Geschehens — die psychoanalytische, die Sartre'sche, die sozialpsychologische — zurück. Die sinnliche Liebe ist und bleibt, anthropologisch betrachtet, zweideutig. Ihre Ambiguität wird ausschlieszlich durch die Fruchtbarkeit überstiegen. Das Kind ist der geheime Sinn der Erotik, ohne dasz die Liebenden dies ahnen. — Levinas distanziert sich hier bewuszt von den „existenziellen” Phänomenologen, von Sartre und Merleau-Ponty. Ihnen zufolge ist der Mensch das „lumen naturale” ; d.h. dasz das Sinnvolle ausschlieszlich auf Grund von menschlicher Intentionalität geschieht. Levinas dagegen beweist, dasz das eminent Sinnvolle sich hinter dem Rücken des ego abspielt, dasz es durch kein cogito erkannt, erstrebt, entworfen wird. — Ueberdies wird durch die Einführung des Begriffes „Fruchtbarkeit” der Zauberkreis der phänomenologischen Immanenz gesprengt. Das erotische Abenteuer hat zwar seinen Ursprung in Mir, sein Endpunkt befindet sich jedoch auszer Mir. Die Subjektivität ist zwar unendliche Intersubjektivität, wie Husserl bereits erkannt hat, sie ist es aber lediglich infolge ihrer Generati vi tat. Sie ist m.a.W. dadurch unendlich, dasz sie sich immer aufs neue verjüngt. Die alte Generation stirbt ab und macht einer Jugend Platz, die radikal von neuem zu beginnen imstande ist. Levinas konzipiert nicht nur eine Philosophie der Jugend, er meditiert auch über das Wesen der Vaterschaft. Die Vaterschaft befreit das Ich von der Bürde seiner Selbstheit, denn das Ich ist der Sohn. Der Sohn bedeutet in Bezug auf den Vater einerseits einen „ Bruch" — und somit Diskontinuität — andererseits „Hilfsbedürftigkeit” — und daher Kontinuität. Die Intersubjektivität erhält sich somit als eine Kontinuität, die immer wieder unterbrochen wird. — Ein anderes wichtiges ethischreligiöses Denkmotiv ist das folgende : Jeder Sohn ist einziger Sohn. Er verdankt seine Unizität jedoch nicht irgendwelchen leiblich-seelischen Eigenschaften. Er ist einzig, weil der Vater ihn auf einzigartige Weise liebt. Infolgedessen ist jeder Sohn auch auserwählter Sohn. Er ist aber dazu bestimmt, zusammen mit anderen Auserwählten zu existieren. Hieraus entspringt die Idee der menschlichen Bruderschaft und der menschlichen Solidarität. Sie bilden die Grundlage jeglicher Gemeinschaftsbildung und jedweder sozialen Normierung. Die menschliche Sozialität ist, Levinas betont dies, kein tête-à-tête eines Ich mit einem Du ; sie schlieszt notwendigerweise die Möglichkeit eines Dritten in sich. Die menschlichen Gruppen und Gemeinschaften — auch die der Familie — sind von hier aus aufs neue philosophisch zu deuten. Ein Schlüssel zum Verständniss der Levinas'schen Metaphysik ist sein Begriff der „Infinitisierung” („infinition”), dessen Inhalt vielleicht mit der Wendung „dem Unendlichen entgegen wachsen” angedeutet werden kann. Mit welchem Recht spricht jedoch unser Philosoph von solch einem Wachsen, da er doch überzeugt ist, dasz der Mensch gänzlich — nach Leib und Seele — sterblich ist ? Im Geiste Levinas' musz man jedoch sagen, dasz gerade jene Sterblichkeit die „Infinitisierung” ermöglicht. Der Vater musz vollständig sterben, damit das Intervall zwischen den Generationen entsteht, das für die Erneuerung und Verjüngung der Intersubjektivität erforderlich ist. Auf diese Weise kann eine gänzlich neue Zeit anbrechen : die Zeit des Sohnes. Levinas' höchst originelle Philosophie der Zeitlichkeit kann am besten im Ausgang von Martin Heidegger — der hier ausschlieszlich als der Verfasser von „Sein und Zeit” zur Sprache kommt — belichtet werden. Beiden Denkern ist die Ueberzeugung eigen, dasz Temporalität unlöslich verbunden ist mit der — wie immer aufgefaszten — menschlichen Subjektivität. Levinas lehnt jedoch die Lehre von den temporalen Ekstasen, der endlichen Zukunft und dem Sein zum Tode leidenschaftlich ab. Das jemeinige Dasein stirbt zwar notwendigerweise und vollständig. Der Begriff der Subjektivität deckt sich jedoch nicht mit dem des individuellen Daseins. Subjektivität ist vielmehr generative Intersubjektivität. Als solche hat sie eine unendliche Zukunft vor sich. Der Gegensatz Heidegger-Levinas geht letztlich auf eine Verschiedenheit der ethischen Sicht zurück. (Levinas glaubt die Philosophie von „Sein und Zeit” als Ausdruck eines bestimmten Ethos verstehen zu müssen.) Heidegger zufolge ist das Dasein je seine Möglichkeit. Existierend kann es die Möglichkeit, die es ist, verwirklichen oder auch verfehlen : beides ist definitiv. Die Geschichte des individuellen Daseins nimmt auf diese Weise den Charakter eines unwiderruflichen Schicksals an. Dies gibt Levinas Anlasz zu grundsätzlichen Bedenken. Die Transzendenz, die Heidegger dem Dasein zuschreibt, ist keine echte Transzendenz, da sie auf die Gewinnung der je eigenen Möglichkeit gerichtet ist. Dies führt zu einer egozentrischen Selbstvergötterung und Vereinsamung. Das Ethos, das jene Philosophie des Daseins beseelt, ist das eines tragischen Heldentums. Dem stellt Levinas sein eigenes Ideal der spontanen Verantwortlichkeit, Dienstbarkeit und Geduld gegenüber. — Aber auch die Vorstellung einer endlichen Existenz, deren Verfehlungen und Versäumnisse schicksalhafte Endgültigkeit besitzen, ist unvereinbar mit der religiösen Sicht unseres Philosophen. Seiner Ansicht nach enthält der Begriff des endlichen Daseins einen impliziten Hinweis, dem nachzugehen ist. Levinas tut dies mit Hilfe der Begriffe „Jugend”, „radikale Erneuerung” und „Diskontinuität der Zeit”. Es ist völlig wahr, was Heidegger behauptet : Sein erscheint als Zeit, aber wohlgemerkt, als unendliche Zeit. Sie erstreckt sich durch die verschiedenen Zeiten und durch die Intervalle, die die Zeit des Vaters von der des Sohnes scheiden. Darum ist es undenkbar, dasz der eine Augenblick bruchlos aus der Ekstase des anderen hervorgeht. „Der Augenblick findet, während er fortdauert, den Tod und ersteht wieder. Tod und Auferstehung konstituieren die Zeit. Aber eine derartige formale Struktur setzt die Beziehung von Mir zum Anderen voraus und als deren Boden die Fruchtbarkeit.” Levinas' Philosophie ist nicht „optimistisch”. Von Anfang an betont er, dasz der Realist eigentlich anerkennen müszte, dasz das Wesen der Wirklichkeit der Krieg ist. Vom Frieden könne nur in der Sprache einer Eschatologie geredet werden. — Die Frage drängt sich nun auf, ob jenes Eschaton im Geiste von Levinas im Zusammenhang mit dem „Urteil Gottes” steht. Sie kann unter dem Vorbehalt bejaht werden, dasz dabei alle Vorstellungen, die dem Glauben — auch dem jüdischen Glauben — entstammen, ausgeklammert werden. Es handelt sich bei Levinas um eine Religiosität „innerhalb der Grenzen der reinen Vernunft.” Das Eschaton ist unserem Philosophen zufolge nicht ein welterschütterndes Ereignis ; es unterbricht nicht den Verlauf der kosmischen und sozialen Prozesse ; es ist auch nicht „das Ende der Zeiten”. Das Eschaton ist nichts anderes als das Offenbar-werden des göttlichen Urteils oder, was dasselbe besagt ein Sprechen, durch das die Wahrheit und die Güte in Erscheinung tritt. Voraussetzung dafür ist eine „Konvergenz der Moralität und der Realität” ; d.h. dasz im Laufe einer unendlichen Zukunft das innerliche Leben der Menschheit vertieft, ihr Gewissen empfindlicher und ihre Geduld gröszer geworden sein wird. Denn jenes Sprechen erfolgt nicht mit Posaunenschall am „Jüngsten Tag”, es ereignet sich vielmehr alle Tage in den Beziehungen von Person zu Person. M.a.W. das Urteil Gottes wird immerwährend gefällt, wenn auch hinter den Kulissen der offiziellen Geschichte. Es wird gefällt, wenn der Erniedrigte und Beleidigte mich beschuldigt — beschuldigt einfach dadurch, dasz er mir in die Augen schaut. Das Antlitz des Anderen lädt mich vor Gericht, vor Ihm musz ich mich verantworten, Ich, in meiner persönlichen Einzigkeit und Unersetzlichkeit. Meinerseits unterwerfe Ich mich dem Gerichte Gottes in dem Masze, als Ich bereit bin, jene Anklage gegen mich zu vernehmen und mich zu verantworten. Wohlgemerkt : Levinas hält daran fest, dasz das eschatologische Urteil das Werk Gottes ist ; es wird jedoch ausschlieszlich in Menschen und durch Menschen zu einer Erfahrung. Levinas’ Ueberzeugung hinsichtlich der zunehmenden Empfindlichkeit des menschheitlichen Gewissens beruht nicht auf einem oberflächlichen Fortschrittsglauben. Ihr liegt vielmehr eine metaphysische Sicht zugrunde. Den Schlüssel zu ihrem Verständnis bietet wiederum der Begriff der „Infinitisierung”. Sie macht sich in analoger Weise auf drei verschiedenen Ebenen geltend. -Die erste ist die der Fruchtbarkeit. Rein empirisch kann man feststellen, dasz das fruchtbare Wesen andere Wesen hervorbringt, die ihrerseits fruchtbar sind, und dasz auf diese Weise die Fruchtbarkeit in der Natur zunimmt. Hinter dieser empirischen Aussage verbirgt sich jedoch eine ethisch-metaphysische Wahrheit. Im Geiste Levinas' müszte man sagen : Kreative Güte bringt nicht nur Güte hervor, sondern überdies noch mehr Güte. Hier liegt eine Analogie mit dem vor, was soeben als das göttliche Urteil bezeichnet wurde. Durch das Urteil, das der Verfolgte und Unterdrückte über mich fällt, wird mein schlummerndes Gewissen geweckt. Diese Weckung wird ihrerseits eine bleibende gewissensvollere Haltung zur Folge haben. Ich werde jetzt andere Anklagen eher vernehmen und mich ihnen bereitwilliger stellen. Es ist hier wieder die Rede von einer „Infinitisierung”, d.h. von einem unendlichen Wachstum in der Richtung auf das Gute zu. Das dritte und höchste Niveau ist das des metaphysischer Verlangens („ Désir"). Dieses unterscheidet sich wesentlich von dem egozentrischen Bedürfnis („ besoin"). Was letzteres betrifft, gilt das Folgende : Hat sich das Ich seines Objektes bemächtigt — hat es dieses theoretisch erkannt oder praktisch in Besitz genommen —, dann ist das Bedürfnis gestillt. Es ist erloschen, wenn das Andere, das Objekt, Mir, Demselben, einverleibt wurde. Daraus wird die grundsätzliche Endlichkeit jenes egozentrischen Lebens ersichtlich. Das metaphysische Verlangen dagegen ist unersättlich, „nicht, weil es einem unendlichen Hunger entspricht, sondern weil es keine Speise begehrt”. Es ist ja auf kein Objekt gerichtet. Dem Unendlichen gegenüber ist kein intentionales Verhalten möglich. Wohl aber ist es denkbar, dasz das endliche Wesen von dem überwältigenden Charakter des Unendlichen getroffen wird. Je mehr mein Verständnis für jenes alles Uebertreffende zunimmt, desto gröszer wird auch mein metaphysisches Verlangen. Es liegt also wieder eine „Infinitisierung” vor. Das Eschaton ereignet sich demnach jetzt und hier, wenn auch die offizielle Geschichte von ihm nichts weisz. Es besteht in einem unmerklichen Reifen der Menschheit, die sich in einer unendlichen Zukunft einem gänzlich neuen ethischsozialen Zustand nähert. Der eschatalogische Endzustand kann vielleicht als die vollkommene Harmonie zwischen Sozialität und Personalität charakterisiert werden. (shrink)

Theodore Levitt criticizes John Kenneth Galbraith's view of advertising as artificial want creation, contending that its selling focus on the product fails to appreciate the marketing focus on the consumer. But Levitt himself not only ends up endorsing selling; he fails to confront the fact that the marketing to our most pervasive needs that he advocates really represents a sophisticated form of selling. He avoids facing this by the fiction that marketing is concerned only with the material level (...) of existence, and absolves marketing of serious involvement in the level of meaning through the relativization of all meanings as personal preferences. The irony is that this itself reflects a particular view of meaning, a modern commercial one, so that it is this vision of life that LevittÕs marketing is really SELLING. (shrink)

"Philosophieren heißt, Sterben lernen!" - Das antike Ideal des Weisen von Sokrates und Seneca bis hin zu Montaigne stellt uns vor die Frage, ob in der Sterblichkeit des Menschen ein Anlaß zur Hoffnung liegt oder nicht eher zur Resignation. Mit der Geburt ist alles Lebendige unterwegs zu seinem Tod. Der Tod scheint daher auch für den Menschen sein natürliches Ende zu sein. Die Rede vom "natürlichen Ende" läßt allerdings noch ungeklärt, ob das "Ende" als Aufhören oder als Vollendung zu denken (...) ist, und ob ein bloßes Aufhören des Lebens für den Menschen schon die Vollendung als Person sein kann. Bezeichnend für das besondere Verhältnis des Menschen zu seinem Tod ist seit den Anfängen der Philosophie die Frage nach der Unsterblichkeit der Geistseele. Josef Pieper hat ihr sein Buch "Tod und Unsterblichkeit" gewidmet. Die vorliegenden Beiträge nehmen den 50. Todestag von C. S. Lewis zum Anlaß, die philosophische Frage nach Leid und Tod neu zu durchdenken. (shrink)